Tolkien escreve que a Terra Média é essencialmente nossa terra, em um passado fictício:
I have, I suppose, constructed an imaginary time, but kept my feet on my own mother-earth for place. I prefer that to the contemporary mode of seeking my own remote globes in 'space'. However curious, they are alien, and not lovable with the love of blood-kin. [...] Many reviewers seem to assume that Middle-earth is another planet!
(Cartas de J. R. R. Tolkien, carta nº 211 (uma carta muito boa))
Muitas das estrelas ME também são referências a estrelas reais. Naturalmente, Arda muda radicalmente após a primeira idade. Antes disso, Aman e a Terra Média eram dois continentes em uma Arda plana (!), Rodeada pelo Sol (Anar) e a Lua (Rana). Então, Illúvatar curvou os cantos da Terra (ou algo assim) e fez Arda circular. E após a queda de Númenor, Illúvatar removeu Aman de Arda e mudou de continente e oceanos.
Então, para responder à sua pergunta: terceira idade (e depois) Arda é praticamente idêntica à Terra (astronomicamente), e a primeira era de alguma forma parece ser plana e diferente. (Sim, eu sei, é estranho)
Como referência: Esta resposta de o meu inclui um mapa de Arda 'depois da guerra dos deuses' (primeira era)
EDIT: aqui está o bit 'mudando o mundo' do Akallabêth:
Then Manwe upon the Mountain called upon Illúvatar, and for that time the Valar laid down their government of Arda. But Illúvatar showed forth his power, and he changed the fashion of the world; and a great chasm opened in the sea between Númenor and the Deathless Lands, and the waters flowed down into it, and the noise and smoke of the cataracts went up to heaven, and the world was shaken. [...]
But the land of Aman and Eressea of the Eldar were taken away and removed beyond the reach of Men for ever. [...]
For Illúvatar cast back the Great Seas west of Middle-earth, and the Empty Lands east of it, and new lands and new seas were made; and the world was diminished, for Valinor and Eressea were taken from it into the realm of hidden things.
E aqui está um pouco de 'Do Sol e da Lua e o Esconderijo de Valinor' (Silmarillion):
But the Flower and the Fruit [of the now dead Two Trees] Yavanna gave to Aule, and Manwe hallowed them, and Aule and his people made vessels to hold them and preserve their radiance: as is said in the Narsilion, the Song of the Sun and the Moon. These vessels the Valar gave to Varda, that they might become lamps of heaven, outshining the ancient stars, being nearer to Arda; and she gave them power to traverse the lower regions of Ilmen, and set them to voyage upon appointed courses above the girdle of the Earth from the West unto the East and to return.
E para mostrar que o céu noturno era de fato igual ao nosso: Em 'Da vinda dos elfos e do cativeiro de Melkor', Varda faz as estrelas (e planetas, todos são descritos como estrelas aqui):
[...] and therewith she made new stars and brighter against the coming of the First-born; wherefore she whose name out of the deeps of time and the labours of Eä was Tintalle, the Kindler, was called after by the Elves Elentári, Queen of the Stars. Carnil and Luinil [lit. red and blue (stars?)], Nenar and Lumbar, Alcarinque and Elemmire she wrought in that time
Aqueles eram os planetas
and many other of the ancient stars she gathered together and set as signs in the heavens of Arda: Wilwarin, Telumendil, Soronúme, and Arríma; and Menelmacar with his shining belt, that forebodes the Last Battle that shall be at the end of days. And high in the north as a challenge to Melkor she set the crown of seven mighty stars to swing, Valacirca, the Sickle of the Valar and sign of doom.
(Esta foice também é encontrada no SdA, capítulo 'Strider'):
The Sickle* was swinging bright above the shoulders of Bree-hill.
e a nota de rodapé:
*The Hobbits' name for the Plough or Great Bear
Mais sobre os planetas:
Existem algumas notas sobre Nomes das estrelas no final de "Morgoth's Ring":
In the second, all but final, draft my father is seen in the act of devising the names of the constellations, with various experimental forms before those that appear in the final text were reached; but he set down the names of the stars without hesitation, thus: *Karnil, Luinil, Nénarm Lumbar, Alkarinque, Elemmire. Above Karnil he wrote 'M', above Lumbar 'S', above Alkarinque 'Jup', and above Elemmire again 'M'. No letter stands above Luinil, but above Nénar there is an 'N' which was struck out.
Now if Alkarinque is Jupiter, then a great red star named Karnil and marked with an 'M' must be Mars - which in turn leads to the identification of Lumbar ('S') with Saturn, and Ellemire ('M') with Mercury. [...]
Ele não tem certeza sobre as identidades de Luinil e Nénar. Eles pareciam ser Netuno e Urano, mas isso não se encaixa com o texto "novas estrelas e mais brilhante contra a vinda do primogênito"
Então sabemos:
- Carnil é Marte
- Luinil não é definido, 'luin' é azul, então as pessoas acham que pode ser Netuno, ou até Orion (uma constelação)
- Nénar também não é definitivo, talvez Urano
- A lombar é provavelmente Saturno
- Alcarinque é Júpiter
- Elemmire é Mercúrio